Universal value

rdf:langString Universal value

rdf:langString Bolin, Anne, and Patricia Whelehan . Perspectives on Human Sexuality. SUNY Press.

rdf:langString Schwartz, S. H. . 'Universals in the Content and Structure of Values: Theory and Empirical Tests in 20 Countries'. In M. Zanna , Advances in Experimental Social Psychology . New York: Academic Press: 1-65.

rdf:langString Sen, Amartya . 'Democracy as a Universal Value'. Journal of Democracy, 10 : 3-17.

rdf:langString Jahanbegloo, Ramin, . Conversations With Isaiah Berlin. McArthur & Co. Reprinted 2007, Halban Publishers. ,

rdf:langString Diamond, Larry Jay, and Marc F. Plattner . The Global Divergence of Democracies. Johns Hopkins University Press.

rdf:langString Pettit, Philip . The Common Mind: An Essay on Psychology, Society, and Politics. New York: Oxford University Press.

rdf:langString Schwartz, S. H. . 'Are there Universal Aspects in the Structure and Contents of Human Values?'. Journal of Social Issues, 50 : 19–45.

rdf:langString Schwartz, S. H. and W. Bilsky . 'Toward a Universal Psychological Structure of Human Values'. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53: 550-562.

rdf:langString Mason, Elinor, . 'Value pluralism'. In The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. .

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rdf:langString idSen1999

rdf:langString A value is a universal value if it has the same value or worth for all, or almost all, people. Spheres of human value encompass morality, aesthetic preference, human traits, human endeavour, and social order. Whether universal values exist is an unproven conjecture of moral philosophy and cultural anthropology, though it is clear that certain values are found across a great diversity of human cultures, such as primary attributes of physical attractiveness (e.g. youthfulness, symmetry) whereas other attributes (e.g. slenderness) are subject to aesthetic relativism as governed by cultural norms. This objection is not limited to aesthetics. Relativism concerning morals is known as moral relativism, a philosophical stance opposed to the existence of universal moral values. The claim for universal values can be understood in two different ways. First, it could be that something has a universal value when everybody finds it valuable. This was Isaiah Berlin's understanding of the term. According to Berlin, "...universal values....are values that a great many human beings in the vast majority of places and situations, at almost all times, do in fact hold in common, whether consciously and explicitly or as expressed in their behaviour..." Second, something could have universal value when all people have reason to believe it has value. Amartya Sen interprets the term in this way, pointing out that when Mahatma Gandhi argued that non-violence is a universal value, he was arguing that all people have reason to value non-violence, not that all people currently value non-violence. Many different things have been claimed to be of universal value, for example, fertility, pleasure, and democracy. The issue of whether anything is of universal value, and, if so, what that thing or those things are, is relevant to psychology, political science, and philosophy, among other fields.